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[關(guān)鍵詞]喬納森·貝特;生態(tài)批評(píng);綠色的浪漫主義
[中圖分類號(hào)]I106.2 [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼]A [文章編號(hào)]1674-6848(2013)01-0077-06
[作者簡(jiǎn)介]方 麗(1965—),女,重慶人,文學(xué)博士,重慶師范大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院副教授,主要從事英美生態(tài)批評(píng)及英美文學(xué)研究。(重慶 101331)
[基金項(xiàng)目]本文為重慶市教委人文社科基金項(xiàng)目“綠色的文化批評(píng):英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)研究”(12SKE11)的階段性成果。
Title: Green Romanticism and the Imagination of the Place: A Study of Jonathan Bate’s Ecocriticism
Author: Fang Li
Abstract: As a pioneer of British ecocriticism, Jonathan Bate reevaluates literary classics from the perspective of ecocriticism. He digs out a sense of place embodied in the romantic poems, which is the result of the harmony between mind and nature. His research has offered an optional interpretation of romantic poems. This paper makes a comprehensive statement about Bate’s ecocritical theory. By investigating Bate’s ecocritical discourse about “romantic ecology” and “ecopoetics”, main characteristics are explored. Comments on his important contributions to ecocriticism are included.
Key words: Jonathan Bate; ecocriticism; green romanticism
生態(tài)批評(píng)是繼女性批評(píng)、新歷史主義批評(píng)和后殖民主義批評(píng)等之后,新出現(xiàn)的一種文學(xué)批評(píng)模式。生態(tài)批評(píng)在20世紀(jì)七八十年代在美英初露端倪,從90年代至今得到迅速的發(fā)展,目前已成為當(dāng)代西方乃至世界范圍的文學(xué)批評(píng)活動(dòng)的重要力量。生態(tài)批評(píng)的出現(xiàn),為面臨種種困惑和爭(zhēng)議的當(dāng)代文學(xué)研究注入了新的活力,打開了新的思路,開拓了新的領(lǐng)域。在西方生態(tài)批評(píng)領(lǐng)域中,英美兩國(guó)是這一新興的文學(xué)批評(píng)模式中兩支重要的力量,他們嘗試以關(guān)注人類生存前景為出發(fā)點(diǎn)的生態(tài)批評(píng)為研究方法,重審經(jīng)典文學(xué)作品,使文學(xué)研究走向了廣闊的生態(tài)學(xué)視野。在英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)領(lǐng)域,最有影響和代表性的人物是英國(guó)利物浦大學(xué)的喬納森·貝特(Jonathan Bate)。貝特繼承了雷蒙·威廉斯(Raymond Williams)以來(lái)英國(guó)的文化批評(píng)傳統(tǒng),把生態(tài)學(xué)原理運(yùn)用于文學(xué)批評(píng)中,將以華茲華斯為代表的英國(guó)浪漫主義文學(xué)作為研究對(duì)象,重新審視浪漫主義文學(xué)傳統(tǒng),探討浪漫主義詩(shī)人所具有的人與自然相融合的生態(tài)意識(shí),挖掘這種有機(jī)論的自然觀所具有的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義,對(duì)生態(tài)批評(píng)在英國(guó)的興起和發(fā)展起到了重要的作用,他也因此被譽(yù)為英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的先驅(qū)。
一、《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》:英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的開山之作
從通行的觀點(diǎn)來(lái)看,英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的出現(xiàn)略晚于美國(guó)。美國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)萌發(fā)于20世紀(jì)的七八十年代,作為一種文學(xué)批評(píng)流派形成于20世紀(jì)90年代初期。而英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的出現(xiàn),一般是以1991年貝特的專著《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué):華茲華斯與環(huán)境的傳統(tǒng)》(Romanic Ecology:Wordsworth and the Environmental Tradition)的問世為標(biāo)志的。其實(shí),貝特并不是從生態(tài)視角研究浪漫主義作家的第一人。早在1974年,美國(guó)批評(píng)家克羅伯(Karl Kroeber)在其浪漫主義研究中就引入了生態(tài)學(xué)的概念。①貝特也不是第一個(gè)提出“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”這一概念的。1977年,美國(guó)環(huán)境史學(xué)家沃斯特(Donald Worster)就在《自然的經(jīng)濟(jì)體系:生態(tài)思想史》(Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas)一書中提出了“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”的概念,沃斯特所說(shuō)的“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”主要是指美國(guó)超驗(yàn)主義作家梭羅的生態(tài)思想,同時(shí)也提到了英國(guó)和德國(guó)浪漫派文學(xué)家的生態(tài)思想。②盡管如此,浪漫主義研究的綠色轉(zhuǎn)向真正開始得到批評(píng)界的廣泛關(guān)注還是在2001年貝特的《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》一書出版以后。
在《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》中,貝特從文學(xué)和文化的意義上最早把“浪漫主義”與“生態(tài)學(xué)”聯(lián)系起來(lái),并從生態(tài)學(xué)的角度對(duì)浪漫主義文學(xué)進(jìn)行了重新評(píng)估。在這部書里,貝特使用了“文學(xué)的生態(tài)批評(píng)”③這一術(shù)語(yǔ),這一著作的問世,“標(biāo)志著英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的開端”。④
《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》被譽(yù)為英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的開山之作,它的出版引發(fā)了一股重新評(píng)價(jià)和解讀浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的熱潮,極大地推動(dòng)了英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)的興起和發(fā)展,生態(tài)批評(píng)在英國(guó)逐漸升溫。
如果說(shuō)美國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)與愛默生、梭羅為代表的美國(guó)先驗(yàn)主義文學(xué)思想有著密不可分的聯(lián)系的話,那么英國(guó)的生態(tài)批評(píng)則與浪漫主義研究傳統(tǒng)是分不開的。英國(guó)的浪漫主義研究傳統(tǒng)上至18世紀(jì)末,下至20世紀(jì)90年代。在這些研究中,既有作為政治-歷史閱讀的外在批評(píng),也有作為審美-形式閱讀的內(nèi)在批評(píng)。20世紀(jì)以來(lái),無(wú)論是新批評(píng)、結(jié)構(gòu)主義,還是新歷史主義、女性主義都嘗試用不同的方法來(lái)研究英國(guó)浪漫主義,也得出了頗有洞見的結(jié)論。其中,影響最大的當(dāng)屬解構(gòu)主義和新歷史主義對(duì)浪漫主義作品的解讀。在對(duì)浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的重新解讀中,以哈特曼和布魯姆代表的解構(gòu)主義學(xué)派認(rèn)為,浪漫主義詩(shī)人“尋找的是想象、獨(dú)立和眼前的快樂……一種超驗(yàn)的自然”。⑤因此,哈特曼認(rèn)為,華茲華斯并不是一位自然詩(shī)人。20世紀(jì)80年代以來(lái),以梅甘(Jerome J. McGann)為代表的新歷史主義批評(píng)認(rèn)為,“浪漫主義是一種意識(shí)形態(tài),它以歷史為代價(jià),賦予想象以特權(quán)。它尋求超驗(yàn)而躲避現(xiàn)實(shí),文化成為每一個(gè)浪漫主義詩(shī)人宏偉的幻想。”⑥哈特曼和麥克干等人對(duì)浪漫主義詩(shī)人的重新評(píng)價(jià),顛覆了前人對(duì)以華茲華斯為代表的浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的定論,他們以其敏銳的政治-歷史意識(shí)揭示了浪漫主義作品所隱藏的復(fù)雜的社會(huì)政治問題,這無(wú)疑對(duì)我們?nèi)胬斫饫寺髁x作品具有重要的意義。
然后,隨著20世紀(jì)90年代生態(tài)批評(píng)這一股席卷全球的批評(píng)浪潮的興起,解構(gòu)主義和新歷史主義的觀點(diǎn)卻受到了以貝特為代表的英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)家的挑戰(zhàn)。貝特認(rèn)為,20世紀(jì)60年代以哈特曼為代表的解構(gòu)主義對(duì)浪漫主義的解讀拋棄了自然,將我們帶人先驗(yàn)的想象中;而20世紀(jì)80年代以麥克干為代表的新歷史主義對(duì)浪漫主義的解讀又拋棄了先驗(yàn)的想象,把我們帶回到歷史和社會(huì)中。21世紀(jì)60年代對(duì)浪漫主義的解讀是理想主義的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),賦予想象以特權(quán);80年代對(duì)浪漫主義的解讀則是后阿爾都塞式的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。前者假定人類思想高于自然,后者則假定人類社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)比自然經(jīng)濟(jì)更重要。在貝特看來(lái),成為“經(jīng)典”的文學(xué)作品具有與現(xiàn)實(shí)和未來(lái)對(duì)話的能力,華茲華斯的綠色閱讀就是經(jīng)典文學(xué)作品的典范。從一方面來(lái)看,華茲華斯的詩(shī)歌具有很強(qiáng)的歷史影響力,在其詩(shī)歌中所體現(xiàn)出的浪漫主義傳統(tǒng)就是尊重地球,質(zhì)疑經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)和物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)的合法性,這正是當(dāng)今生態(tài)學(xué)所倡導(dǎo)的觀點(diǎn);另一方面,華茲華斯的詩(shī)歌也具有很強(qiáng)的現(xiàn)代感召力,因?yàn)槔寺髁x預(yù)言了有可能在下一個(gè)十年出現(xiàn)的最緊迫的政治生態(tài)問題,如溫室效應(yīng),臭氧層稀薄,熱帶森林毀滅,酸雨,海洋污染等。貝特認(rèn)為,是時(shí)候讓華茲華斯恢復(fù)“自然詩(shī)人”這一稱謂了。重新學(xué)習(xí)華茲華斯看待自然的方式,并不是真正能夠?qū)φ嘘P(guān)“綠色”問題的政策有任何影響,其重要的價(jià)值在于弘揚(yáng)環(huán)境意識(shí)傳統(tǒng)的歷史。華茲華斯并不是開啟這一傳統(tǒng)的第一人,但是他對(duì)于這一傳統(tǒng)有著重要的影響。貝特也指出:“如果說(shuō)浪漫主義是一種意識(shí)形態(tài)的話,它并不是如麥克干所說(shuō)的是一種想象的理論,是一種理想主義者和象征的文本。它是一種生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的理論,一種實(shí)用主義和民粹主義的文本。”①
在《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》一書的前言部分,貝特指出:“文學(xué)批評(píng)家的目的不僅是詮釋,而且也要辯證地論述。批評(píng)家總是有選擇地閱讀文本、讓文本為他們的目的服務(wù)。……虔誠(chéng)的19世紀(jì)評(píng)論家評(píng)論華茲華斯時(shí),使用的是宗教話語(yǔ),自由的20世紀(jì)末的批評(píng)家們用女性主義話語(yǔ)論述浪漫主義,無(wú)論是那時(shí)的還是當(dāng)今的評(píng)論,都是強(qiáng)調(diào)詩(shī)人作品中的某些東西,或沒有的東西,以此來(lái)滿足特定讀者的特定的需求。而我希望我對(duì)華茲華斯的閱讀屬于另一類閱讀:既是批評(píng)家的目的也是作者本人的目的。這樣的閱讀能夠在讀者與死去的作者之間建立起一種交流,這種交流會(huì)帶來(lái)某種特殊的享受和對(duì)忍耐的感悟。”②因此,《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》一書倡導(dǎo)這樣一種觀點(diǎn):華茲華斯讓讀者懂得如何看待自然世界,如何生活在自然世界中,只有這樣我們才能更好地享受或忍受生活。在浪漫主義詩(shī)學(xué)中,詩(shī)不僅存在于語(yǔ)言之中,更存在于自然之中。它不僅是一種語(yǔ)言表達(dá)的手段,更是人與自然界交流的手段。浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)敬畏著綠色的大地。因?yàn)樗J(rèn)識(shí)到,離開了綠色的事物,人類從肉體到心靈都無(wú)法生存。人類只能在大自然和感覺的語(yǔ)言里,找到最純潔的思想的支撐,心靈的保姆、引導(dǎo)者和保護(hù)者,整個(gè)道德生命的靈魂。
貝特也關(guān)注華茲華斯詩(shī)歌中有關(guān)“地方的想象”的話題。在《浪漫主義生態(tài)學(xué)》“地方的命名”一章中,貝特探討了華茲華斯詩(shī)歌中對(duì)地方的演繹。在貝特看來(lái),熟悉、了解并珍視一個(gè)地方有三種方式:一是長(zhǎng)期居住此地,二是對(duì)地方的命名,三是通過學(xué)習(xí)有關(guān)地方的知識(shí)。貝特提到的第二種方式主要是針對(duì)文學(xué)作品中作家對(duì)地方的命名而言的。貝特認(rèn)為,在華茲華斯的詩(shī)歌中,“命名就是與地方同化。”我們感覺詩(shī)人就在詩(shī)里,詩(shī)人與一個(gè)具體的地方是結(jié)合在一起的。對(duì)于華茲華斯,命名是一種想象力的馳騁,也是與大地合一的象征。貝特指出,人對(duì)地方的記憶會(huì)堆積起來(lái),不斷被喚醒,華茲華斯“對(duì)地方的命名也是一個(gè)喚醒記憶的過程”。①
在《浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)》一書中,貝特重新審視了以華茲華斯為代表的浪漫主義傳統(tǒng),概述了由華茲華斯以來(lái)包括約翰·拉斯金、威廉·莫瑞斯和愛德華·托馬斯等人形成的關(guān)注環(huán)境的傳統(tǒng),采用“生態(tài)學(xué)的批評(píng)”,將“浪漫主義”與“生態(tài)”的概念連在一起,探討浪漫主義詩(shī)歌中反映的自然環(huán)境和生態(tài)理念,重新將浪漫主義詩(shī)歌與自然聯(lián)系起來(lái),挖掘了浪漫主義詩(shī)歌中心靈與自然相互交融而產(chǎn)生的家園意識(shí),打開了解讀浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的另一種可能性,使我們對(duì)浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的當(dāng)代價(jià)值有了更深的認(rèn)識(shí)。對(duì)于新興的英國(guó)生態(tài)批評(píng)起到了提示、倡導(dǎo)和促進(jìn)的作用,此后涌現(xiàn)的重新解讀浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的生態(tài)批評(píng)熱潮,與貝特的開創(chuàng)性研究是分不開的。
二、《大地之歌》:“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”的構(gòu)想
2000年貝特出版了第二部生態(tài)批評(píng)專著《大地之歌》,發(fā)展和完善了“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”思想。在《大地之歌》中,貝特將文本范圍擴(kuò)大到英美兩國(guó)的現(xiàn)當(dāng)代作品,從簡(jiǎn)·奧斯汀(Jane Austin)到伊利莎白·畢曉普(Elizabeth Bishop),以獨(dú)特的視角探討了這些作品所具有的生態(tài)價(jià)值。
貝特提出了“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”(ecopoetic)的概念。海德格爾“詩(shī)意地棲居”的哲學(xué)思想激發(fā)了貝特的靈感。eco-來(lái)源于希臘文oikos,意思是“家園”或者“棲居地”。貝特指出“棲居”意味著一種歸宿感,一種從屬于大地、被大自然所接納、與大地共存的感覺。它的對(duì)立面就是失去家園。這種歸宿感的產(chǎn)生有兩個(gè)前提:一是“詩(shī)意地”生存,生存在審美愉悅當(dāng)中,生存在精神生活的日益豐富當(dāng)中;另一個(gè)前提就是非常值得地生存,而要做到“非常值得”得生存,就必須尊重大地,對(duì)所棲居的大地負(fù)責(zé)任。在貝特看來(lái),“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”不應(yīng)該是政治性的,更不應(yīng)該是宣傳性的,而是提倡“詩(shī)意地棲居”在大地上,把地球當(dāng)作家園或棲居地,這樣,才能讓詩(shī)歌成為拯救地球之所。貝特相信,文學(xué)作為語(yǔ)言的一種特殊使用,能夠把我們和自然世界重新聯(lián)系在一起。②
在《大地之歌》中,貝特探討了浪漫主義詩(shī)人對(duì)地方的演繹與實(shí)踐,將浪漫主義文學(xué)作品中的地方與浪漫派詩(shī)人的環(huán)境意識(shí)、對(duì)地方的感知和意識(shí)等方面聯(lián)系起來(lái),進(jìn)行了有意義的探討,他試圖建構(gòu)一種浪漫主義的“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”。貝特“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”的關(guān)注點(diǎn)是詩(shī)歌所具有的詩(shī)性力量,他認(rèn)為生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)是為“他者”代言,盡管生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)在自然之外代表“自然”說(shuō)話,但是生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)也是自然的一部分。“在詩(shī)歌中,尋求人類的權(quán)利是尋求自然權(quán)利的一部分。”在貝特看來(lái),詩(shī)是人類想象和體驗(yàn)的創(chuàng)造物,它從歷史和社會(huì)中退隱到自然,詩(shī)人在自然中享受簡(jiǎn)單的生活,體驗(yàn)自然審美的快樂。“田園的主題是詩(shī)歌的主題,也就是詩(shī)本身。”在田園主義的自由、單純和熱情的生活中,人與自身的情感直接地相互融合。詩(shī)歌溶解了人的精神和自然,人類的利益和自然的利益之間的界限。詩(shī)人基于情感的體驗(yàn)與自然交流互動(dòng),與自然同在,走向與自然合一的狀態(tài)。這種與自然的溶合并不是從文明社會(huì)中隱退,逃避社會(huì)的責(zé)任。因?yàn)樵?shī)人不是批判,而是寫詩(shī),使詩(shī)歌成為人類在自然中的棲息之地。所有的詩(shī)歌都是為人類在自然中建立的棲居之地。如果人類不再因物質(zhì)的享受而掠奪自然,讓自然在人類的心靈中安居,地球就可以得到治愈。“人類棲居著,因?yàn)樗麄冋却蟮亍H绻?shī)是棲居最本源的進(jìn)入,那么詩(shī)就是我們拯救地球之所。”①
貝特的“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”讓我們重新思考人與自然、環(huán)境以及生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的有機(jī)聯(lián)系。浪漫主義詩(shī)人將自然環(huán)境與詩(shī)人心靈完美地融合起來(lái),打破了笛卡爾式的心靈與物質(zhì)、主體與客體、自然與文化等的二元對(duì)立,這是浪漫主義詩(shī)歌所體現(xiàn)出的最為重要的生態(tài)思想。拜倫的《黑暗》告訴我們,當(dāng)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)被破壞,人際聯(lián)系也會(huì)遭到相同的摧毀;濟(jì)慈的《秋頌》和柯爾律治的《午夜霜》思考的則是我們與其他事物尤其是大地的聯(lián)系,這種聯(lián)系是脆弱的,但卻是美麗的,而且對(duì)于生態(tài)整體性來(lái)說(shuō)是十分必要的。
三、綠色的浪漫主義
貝特的“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”和“生態(tài)詩(shī)學(xué)”使浪漫主義研究的綠色轉(zhuǎn)向得到英國(guó)批評(píng)界的廣泛關(guān)注,并引發(fā)了大量相關(guān)的研究和討論。1997年舉行的“文學(xué)與自然環(huán)境會(huì)議”,以及1998年的“文化與環(huán)境保護(hù)主義會(huì)議”都有從生態(tài)視角所進(jìn)行的浪漫主義研究。2001年7月由“英國(guó)浪漫主義研究協(xié)會(huì)”在英國(guó)利物浦大學(xué)舉行了以“長(zhǎng)盛不衰(sustaining)的浪漫主義”為主題的會(huì)議,從生態(tài)視角對(duì)浪漫主義的重新解讀成為一個(gè)重要的議題。2006年6月,威爾士大學(xué)浪漫主義研究中心又舉行了以“浪漫主義,環(huán)境,危機(jī)”為主題的會(huì)議,此次會(huì)議的所有議題都是探討浪漫主義研究中的生態(tài)政治問題。
浪漫主義研究的綠色之風(fēng)也刮到了大洋彼岸的北美學(xué)界。專注于浪漫主義研究的美國(guó)批評(píng)家卡爾·克羅伯(Karl Kroeber)于1994年出版了《生態(tài)學(xué)的文學(xué)批評(píng):浪漫主義的想象和心靈生態(tài)學(xué)》(Ecological Literary Criticism: Romantic Imagining and the Biology of Mind)。在此書中,克羅伯提出了“生態(tài)學(xué)的文學(xué)批評(píng)”的概念。像貝特一樣,克羅伯主張運(yùn)用生態(tài)學(xué)的方法對(duì)浪漫主義詩(shī)歌進(jìn)行重新評(píng)價(jià)。克羅伯指出,文學(xué)批評(píng)應(yīng)該重新建立與社會(huì)其他領(lǐng)域特別是現(xiàn)代生態(tài)學(xué)的聯(lián)系,生態(tài)學(xué)的文學(xué)批評(píng)關(guān)注自然過程和文化過程的相互聯(lián)系。有關(guān)自然的詩(shī)歌表達(dá)了浪漫主義詩(shī)人最深厚的政治義務(wù)和責(zé)任。浪漫主義詩(shī)人認(rèn)為:“藝術(shù)的實(shí)用功效不僅負(fù)有對(duì)社會(huì)的責(zé)任,還負(fù)有對(duì)自然的責(zé)任。浪漫主義詩(shī)歌具有豐富的想象力,這是人類最根本的能力,它能使我們與的環(huán)境發(fā)生互動(dòng)。想象力在詩(shī)歌中得到實(shí)現(xiàn),因此能為解決實(shí)際的社會(huì)和倫理困境做出貢獻(xiàn)。浪漫主義批評(píng)家時(shí)刻牢記的是,人類是環(huán)境最重要的部分,這正是當(dāng)今社會(huì)的人們所忽視的東西。在克羅伯看來(lái),英國(guó)浪漫主義詩(shī)歌是在文學(xué)上首次預(yù)見當(dāng)代生態(tài)學(xué)概念的文學(xué)。”②
2000年9月,“北美浪漫主義研究會(huì)”在亞利桑那州立大學(xué)舉行了以“浪漫主義和自然”為主題的會(huì)議。在同一年,麥克庫(kù)西克(James Mckusick)出版了專著《綠色寫作:浪漫主義與生態(tài)學(xué)》(Green Writing:Romanticism and Ecology),將英國(guó)浪漫主義詩(shī)人以及美國(guó)自然文學(xué)家置于“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”或“綠色寫作”范疇之中來(lái)加以考察和研究。也在同一年,由史蒂夫(Rosendale Steven)編輯出版了論文集《文學(xué)研究的綠化:文學(xué)、理論與環(huán)境》 (The Greening of Literary Scholarship: Literature, Theory, and the Environment),其中也有“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”研究成果。
如今,“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”或“綠色的浪漫主義”已成為生態(tài)批評(píng)的一種研究思路和方法,它倡導(dǎo)一種文學(xué)生態(tài)思想,弘揚(yáng)有機(jī)整體論的自然觀,具有一種深切關(guān)懷自然的生態(tài)倫理精神。同時(shí),許多批評(píng)家將貝特的研究視角從關(guān)注浪漫主義作家的自然思想擴(kuò)展到關(guān)注城市生態(tài)以及從不同的視角審視浪漫主義時(shí)期的生態(tài)政治問題。
在近期發(fā)表的論文“英國(guó)浪漫主義研究中的生態(tài)學(xué)”中,加拿大學(xué)者哈欽斯(Kevin Hutchings)認(rèn)為,華茲華斯提倡建立國(guó)家公園來(lái)保護(hù)湖區(qū)的自然景觀,他的詩(shī)歌有時(shí)也表現(xiàn)出一種認(rèn)可城市的微妙態(tài)度。哈欽斯指出,浪漫主義作家既批判城市空間,也承認(rèn)城市自然的價(jià)值,他們其實(shí)也是創(chuàng)立或保護(hù)城市綠色空間的倡導(dǎo)者。哈欽斯預(yù)測(cè),隨著“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”或“綠色的浪漫主義”研究的發(fā)展,與城市生態(tài)學(xué)相關(guān)的問題一定會(huì)在這一領(lǐng)域發(fā)揮日益重要的作用。①
“浪漫主義的生態(tài)學(xué)”研究的另一個(gè)最新發(fā)展是當(dāng)代殖民主義生態(tài)學(xué)對(duì)浪漫主義時(shí)期相關(guān)議題的解讀。比維爾(Alan Bewell)在《浪漫主義與殖民時(shí)期的疾病》一書中,采用了一種生態(tài)-唯物主義的視角,研究歐洲殖民主義的生物醫(yī)學(xué)的語(yǔ)境。比維爾認(rèn)為,“殖民化不單是一種軍事行動(dòng),而完完全全是一種生物學(xué)的和生態(tài)學(xué)的事件。”②在浪漫主義時(shí)期,有關(guān)殖民主義的討論中,疾病的意象,遠(yuǎn)非僅僅是指“有關(guān)種族文化焦慮的隱喻的投射,通常是指顯而易見的生物學(xué)意義上的現(xiàn)實(shí)”。③比維爾指出,事實(shí)上,殖民主義是由改進(jìn)思想和文化來(lái)建立的,但是我們不能忘記的是,“在健康的旗幟下,殖民主義也志在改善殖民的生態(tài)環(huán)境,以及居住在此環(huán)境中的人們(包括外來(lái)的和本地的)。”④
四、結(jié)語(yǔ)
在《大地之歌》中,貝特有一段被廣為引用的話語(yǔ):“公元第三個(gè)千年剛剛開始,大自然已經(jīng)顯示出種種危機(jī),……礦物燃料的大量使用所產(chǎn)生的二氧化碳限制了來(lái)自太陽(yáng)的熱量的散發(fā),從而導(dǎo)致了全球變暖。冰川和凍土不斷融化,海平面持續(xù)上升,降雨模式在改變,風(fēng)暴日益兇猛。海洋遭受過渡浦撈,沙漠化程度在加劇,森林覆蓋率正急劇減少,淡水資源越來(lái)越匱乏。這個(gè)星球上的物種在加速滅絕。我們生存在一個(gè)無(wú)法逃避有毒廢棄物、酸雨和各種有害化學(xué)物質(zhì)的世界。……我們不得不一再地叩問:我們究竟從那里開始走錯(cuò)了路?”⑤
浪漫主義是1790~1850年之間在歐洲興起的一股思想界、藝術(shù)界和文學(xué)界的思潮。德語(yǔ)浪漫主義文學(xué)大量涌現(xiàn)在18世紀(jì)晚期和19世紀(jì)的頭30年中。一般來(lái)說(shuō),浪漫主義有三個(gè)階段:早期浪漫主義,文學(xué)中
心處于耶拿;中期浪漫主義,中心在海德堡;晚期浪漫主義,中心在柏林。代表作家有弗雷德里希?施萊格、路德維希?蒂克、諾瓦利斯、E.T.A?霍夫曼等,他們深受哲學(xué)家康德、費(fèi)希特和謝林等人的
影響,作品情感豐富,童話色彩濃厚,想象力豐富,有時(shí)帶有奇幻甚至恐怖的色彩。
同前一時(shí)期的啟蒙主義對(duì)理性的偏好相比,浪漫主義更加崇尚情感。在19、20世紀(jì)之交,浪漫主義扮演著重頭戲的角色。讓我們從歷史、社會(huì)和文學(xué)的背景探究,浪漫主義出現(xiàn)的文化背景到底是什么。
同時(shí),由于與啟蒙主義根深蒂固的聯(lián)系,我們會(huì)將其與浪漫主義對(duì)比,通過它們之間的相悖和相同處來(lái)更好地理解這一背景。
人們說(shuō),所有的浪漫主義作家都是哲學(xué)家。同其他歐洲國(guó)家相比,德國(guó)的文學(xué)創(chuàng)作同理論反思的聯(lián)系更加緊密。很多作家同時(shí)也是理論家,他們崇尚寫“進(jìn)步的總匯詩(shī)”,也就是包含一切、并不斷變化
上升著的文學(xué)。哲學(xué)思想在他們的作品和斷簡(jiǎn)殘篇中處處可見,哲學(xué)思想和心理分析方法處處穿插。對(duì)他們來(lái)說(shuō),知識(shí)永無(wú)止盡,只可能繼續(xù)發(fā)展。由這一點(diǎn)可以看出,浪漫主義同其他文學(xué)思潮的區(qū)別
,尤其是被人視為與其“相反”的啟蒙主義思想。
18世紀(jì),英國(guó)和法國(guó)已經(jīng)成為中央集權(quán)的國(guó)家,已經(jīng)處于工業(yè)革命興起和資本主義擴(kuò)張的初期。而此時(shí)的德國(guó)還只是一個(gè)地理概念,在德國(guó)的土地上甚至沒有一個(gè)民族的身份認(rèn)同。當(dāng)時(shí)的神圣羅馬帝國(guó)
只是一個(gè)松散的聯(lián)邦,沒有政治、文化和經(jīng)濟(jì)中心。30年戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)讓它開始分崩離析,當(dāng)時(shí)的社會(huì)沒有統(tǒng)一的、進(jìn)步的思想,德國(guó)人都紛紛仿效英、法兩國(guó)的生活和思維方式,將之視為時(shí)髦。
18世紀(jì)末期,浪漫主義思潮興起,在一段相對(duì)沉默的時(shí)代之后,各國(guó)都爆發(fā)了爭(zhēng)端,法國(guó)大陸上燃燒的革命戰(zhàn)火,開始席卷歐洲,如同法國(guó)有拿破侖,英國(guó)有尼爾森,德國(guó)也需要一個(gè)拯救者。而此時(shí)德
國(guó)的資本主義也開始緩慢發(fā)展,市民階級(jí)悄悄崛起,漸漸有了自己的力量和愿望。
浪漫主義星期的另一個(gè)原因是市民階級(jí)的形成和上升,他們是傳播藝術(shù)和文學(xué)的主要力量。經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和財(cái)富積累使得市民階級(jí)有能力讀書、欣賞音樂,去劇院和音樂廳,原先對(duì)政治沒有興趣的市民階級(jí)
也有了更高的訴求。
啟蒙主義時(shí)期,將理性視為最高原則,鼓動(dòng)大批來(lái)自較低社會(huì)階級(jí)的年輕人涌入大學(xué),接受教育。在大學(xué)里他們生活樸素,渴求能夠進(jìn)入上層階級(jí),改變命運(yùn);教授們教他們要自愛,發(fā)展個(gè)性。這些促
使他們進(jìn)一步提升對(duì)社會(huì)的希望,但進(jìn)入上層的大門卻總是緊閉,于是他們漸漸成為中間的一級(jí),對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)也愈加不滿。
接受過了良好教育的年輕人發(fā)現(xiàn)了啟蒙主義思想和社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)之間的矛盾,對(duì)它的允諾大失所望,開始對(duì)之進(jìn)行深刻的反思。帶著想要改善自身階級(jí)的現(xiàn)狀的愿望,他們漸漸形成了與啟蒙主義思想相反的
世界觀,這種最初的思想被人們稱為浪漫主義。它與任何一種文學(xué)或文藝類型都不同,在德國(guó),浪漫主義知識(shí)分子分成截然相反的兩派:一派放棄了雄心,回到現(xiàn)實(shí)。另一派是虔誠(chéng)主義,崇尚神秘和宿
命論。當(dāng)時(shí)這種情況帶動(dòng)了各種各樣社會(huì)和哲學(xué)理論的出現(xiàn)。從這些理論可以直觀地看出當(dāng)時(shí)人們對(duì)啟蒙主義的理性至上的反思以及對(duì)于情感的崇尚。
研究者一般認(rèn)為,啟蒙主義和浪漫主義就像一段繩索的兩頭。因?yàn)樗鼈兪侨绱瞬煌阂粋€(gè)推崇理性、光明、現(xiàn)實(shí)和社會(huì)革命,反對(duì)宗教,另一個(gè)則推崇感情、幻想、浪漫和保守,反對(duì)政治。看上去這二
者沒有一處相契合。但啟蒙主義和浪漫主義之間的聯(lián)系十分復(fù)雜,不應(yīng)只簡(jiǎn)單地用“相反”來(lái)描述這二者的關(guān)系。
恩斯特?卡希爾認(rèn)為,浪漫主義在方法論上是繼承啟蒙主義的,并從中汲取了精華思想。浪漫主義是在批判和研究中,以啟蒙主義為基礎(chǔ),漸漸發(fā)展起來(lái)的。浪漫主義者接受了啟蒙主義者的世界主義的
理論,將其寫作原則、自信和謹(jǐn)慎特點(diǎn)同自己的浪漫主義幻想結(jié)合在一起,作品呈現(xiàn)出廣大而又自由的一面。他們反對(duì)法國(guó)革命,卻在文學(xué)作品中繼續(xù)發(fā)揚(yáng)了這一精神,簡(jiǎn)單來(lái)說(shuō),沒有啟蒙主義的“進(jìn)
步的總匯詩(shī)”,沒有世界主義的思想和烏托邦的夢(mèng)想,浪漫主義就不會(huì)存在。
同時(shí),浪漫主義者并沒有極端地反對(duì)理性。奧古斯特?威廉海姆?馮?施萊格在他的《論文學(xué)、藝術(shù)和時(shí)代精神》中指出,理性與想象擁有同樣的創(chuàng)造力,也是萬(wàn)能的。因?yàn)槔硇宰分鸾y(tǒng)一,想象豐富多
彩,因此他倆看上去完全相反,但是人類的基礎(chǔ)卻是由二者共同構(gòu)成的。這一點(diǎn)清晰地表明,德國(guó)的浪漫主義是把理性看得很重要的,只是認(rèn)為理性不應(yīng)該作為人類的單一精神出現(xiàn)。理性與想象之間的
關(guān)系是辯證的,只有共存才能展現(xiàn)人類精神存在的完整性。
從這一點(diǎn)我們可以看出,德國(guó)的浪漫主義有個(gè)重要出發(fā)點(diǎn):二元論。任何事物都是有兩面性的,如同光和影,好與壞,已知和未知等等。他們被費(fèi)希特的辯證主義哲學(xué)所影響。他們所否認(rèn)的,是啟蒙主
義對(duì)于理性地位的絕對(duì)化。這種二元論還奠定了浪漫主義的一個(gè)特征:諷刺。因?yàn)橹S刺存在于自我否定之中,否定不是消滅或破壞,而是創(chuàng)造的過程。
正如之前所提,浪漫主義在一開始甚至是贊成理性的。事實(shí)上,重點(diǎn)問題不在于承認(rèn)或否定理性的存在,而在于理性的多樣化。理性與非理性之間的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)實(shí)質(zhì)上是極端主義理性和個(gè)人理性之間的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)。
如果將理性外化為所有人都認(rèn)可的東西,人類精神就沒有發(fā)展的余地了。
雖然啟蒙主義照亮了浪漫主義發(fā)展的道路,但它主要涉及的還是英法兩國(guó)的代表者,而非德國(guó)自己的。一個(gè)理性的現(xiàn)代化社會(huì)會(huì)壓抑個(gè)性健康發(fā)展。一個(gè)理想化的社會(huì)不應(yīng)該只是理性的,還應(yīng)當(dāng)是自然
的。早期浪漫主義者的理想社會(huì)的模型一定程度上來(lái)說(shuō)有點(diǎn)不太現(xiàn)實(shí),他們的追隨者卻忘記了這一點(diǎn),仍舊想要努力使這個(gè)社會(huì)成為可能。這激勵(lì)了德國(guó)乃至其他國(guó)家政治運(yùn)動(dòng)的發(fā)展。
浪漫主義者認(rèn)為,雖然理性主義崇尚知識(shí)和科學(xué)進(jìn)步,承認(rèn)人能夠認(rèn)識(shí)和改變世界的能力,卻會(huì)走入極端理性的死角,把人類世界觀帶向功利主義。賺錢成為唯一的生存原則和動(dòng)力,進(jìn)而使人道德敗壞
,阻礙人類精神文明的發(fā)展。強(qiáng)調(diào)內(nèi)心經(jīng)驗(yàn)的豐富和自由的浪漫主義,不樂于見到工業(yè)化的情景,不愿意看到教會(huì)與世俗的分裂,純粹理性最終導(dǎo)致懷疑論的出現(xiàn),浪漫主義者之所以傾向情感,也是由
于他們開始對(duì)理性產(chǎn)生質(zhì)疑,他們想要在理性和情感之間找到和諧,只有這樣人類才能繼續(xù)發(fā)展。他們并不完全否定理性,而是強(qiáng)調(diào)了情感的必要性,想要扭轉(zhuǎn)極端理性已經(jīng)日趨危險(xiǎn)的方向。
總的來(lái)說(shuō),浪漫主義的興起是有其社會(huì)、歷史和哲學(xué)背景的,這一切都構(gòu)成了它興起的文化背景,撇開啟蒙主義的話,我們無(wú)法暢談浪漫主義的特點(diǎn),如文中所分析的那樣:與理想相悖的糟糕的現(xiàn)實(shí)使
浪漫主義者意識(shí)到,純粹的理性給人類與自然、生存與理想之間撕出一個(gè)巨大的裂縫,、人際冷漠和市民階級(jí)的無(wú)力使人們倒向了情感一方。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]梁錫紅,《十九世紀(jì)初德國(guó)社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型期與浪漫主義的矛盾》,《南京師范大學(xué)文學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)》,2001/9,第143-147頁(yè)
[關(guān)鍵詞]浪漫主義小說(shuō) 死亡主題 復(fù)歸 自然 悲劇
浪漫主義[romanticism]是西方文化的“舶來(lái)品”。在浪漫主義的敘事中有三個(gè)明顯的特征:“主觀性”、“復(fù)歸過去”和“回到自然”。在中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文學(xué)受西方浪漫主義影響的前提下,中國(guó)文化傳統(tǒng)和作家的寫作的情態(tài)以“死亡”來(lái)驚醒價(jià)值判斷。在中國(guó)現(xiàn)代文學(xué)的敘事中,浪漫的“復(fù)歸”是這個(gè)時(shí)期大多數(shù)作家的寫作心聲和創(chuàng)作理想。
一、“主觀性抒情”與“個(gè)性化色彩”
綜觀20世紀(jì)中國(guó)現(xiàn)代小說(shuō)中浪漫主義的表征,首先表現(xiàn)為“主觀性抒情”和“個(gè)性化色彩”的浪漫敘事理想。“主觀性抒情”是浪漫主義者主張表現(xiàn)自己的主觀體驗(yàn),抒發(fā)內(nèi)心情懷,它不在乎外在力量的影響,有較大程度的“私人化”特征。這一特征不僅在西方浪漫主義作家中表現(xiàn)突出,在中國(guó)五四作家,如創(chuàng)造社作家郁達(dá)夫、郭沫若,創(chuàng)造社“小伙計(jì)”作家周全平、葉靈鳳、倪貽德,新月社詩(shī)人徐志摩、聞一多、朱湘等人的文學(xué)文本中都不突出的體現(xiàn),可以說(shuō),現(xiàn)代文學(xué)30年是浪漫主義文學(xué)真正自覺的時(shí)代。在此基礎(chǔ)上引起的“個(gè)性化色彩”敘事體現(xiàn)了浪漫主義的原初意義:以人為本,張揚(yáng)人的價(jià)值和意義,反對(duì)基督教神學(xué),達(dá)到人性的最大解放,而其實(shí)質(zhì)是“個(gè)人主義”。受其影響,20世紀(jì)中國(guó)文學(xué)中曾出現(xiàn)過不同時(shí)期的浪漫主義表征,五四時(shí)期創(chuàng)造社、新月社、湖畔詩(shī)社的作家和詩(shī)人在為人和為文上都帶有鮮明的浪漫主義色彩。魯迅的文學(xué)活動(dòng)中也顯示了強(qiáng)烈的個(gè)性主義精神。《摩羅詩(shī)力說(shuō)》不僅介紹西方浪漫主義作家作品,還展露了魯迅的浪漫主義理想,他謳歌的“撒旦派”詩(shī)人拜倫、雪萊等人就是浪漫主義者,他的散文詩(shī)集《野草》在寫作方法上就體現(xiàn)出浪漫主義與現(xiàn)代主義的創(chuàng)作方法。20世紀(jì)20年代的浪漫主義作家受到歐洲前浪漫主義者盧梭的“返歸自然”思想和斯賓諾莎等人的“泛神論”影響,以自然為宣泄對(duì)象,通過對(duì)自然的歌頌,表達(dá)對(duì)神的否定和對(duì)自然力、對(duì)人性的肯定。回顧中國(guó)現(xiàn)代作家的創(chuàng)作,這一特征十分突出,郭沫若、郁達(dá)夫以及廢名、艾蕪等人的作品都具有典型的“個(gè)性化”的藝術(shù)旨趣。
二、“復(fù)歸過去”與“個(gè)體生命體驗(yàn)”
在現(xiàn)代文學(xué)的創(chuàng)作中,作家創(chuàng)作時(shí)既接受外來(lái)文學(xué)形式和思潮影響,又真實(shí)地再現(xiàn)個(gè)體生命體驗(yàn)的文學(xué)模式,即在“復(fù)歸過去”的過程中,尋求“個(gè)體的生命體驗(yàn)”。這一點(diǎn),郁達(dá)夫小說(shuō)的創(chuàng)作實(shí)踐具有典型性:第一,在接受視野上,郁達(dá)夫在創(chuàng)作中接學(xué)了西方文學(xué)、哲學(xué)思想,如提倡盧梭的“回歸自然”的思想,肯定勞倫斯小說(shuō)的風(fēng)格和欽佩屠格涅夫小說(shuō)對(duì)“多余人”的刻畫,以及對(duì)日本“私小說(shuō)”表現(xiàn)方法的吸收與借鑒等。第二,在個(gè)體生命的表現(xiàn)與書寫上,郁達(dá)夫大膽地展示自己的留日生活、回國(guó)后的生活,其中,對(duì)狎妓于青樓的過程、頹廢的精神、悲觀厭世的情緒都作了真實(shí)的外露。這一寫作模式在中國(guó)現(xiàn)代小說(shuō)史上是具有開創(chuàng)性的,這對(duì)創(chuàng)造社的作家葉鼎洛、倪貽德等人影響很大,也對(duì)非創(chuàng)造社作家王以仁、馮沅君等人有著強(qiáng)烈的榜樣作用。可以說(shuō),郁達(dá)夫的小說(shuō)創(chuàng)作從身體到精神的模仿,是一種毫無(wú)掩飾的、徹底的模仿。從這個(gè)意義上看,屬于這一模仿類型的小說(shuō)是寫于1927年以前的作品,作品都以20世紀(jì)20年代前后中國(guó)的社會(huì)生活為背景,寫出了時(shí)代青年、知識(shí)分子的憂國(guó)憂民之情,寫出了他們對(duì)貧富懸殊的不滿和對(duì)生命力受壓制吶喊,作品中的諸多情節(jié)替“死亡”來(lái)展示,主人公的死往往具有一種“復(fù)歸自然”的文學(xué)人生理想。而小說(shuō)中所懸置的“死亡”問題,正是把人們的注意力引向現(xiàn)世的生存,悲劇死亡的結(jié)局恰恰是對(duì)現(xiàn)世生存的復(fù)歸;主體生存意識(shí)的幻滅,孤獨(dú)、空虛、飄零、頹廢、變態(tài)的也是個(gè)體特有的生命體驗(yàn),在“沉默中滅亡”的悲劇也是“五四”時(shí)期許多浪漫青年的社會(huì)歸宿。作者的創(chuàng)作主題的最終目的由此傳達(dá)出來(lái),即由個(gè)人的死亡推及到時(shí)代的死亡。
三、“情感的回歸”與“自然的敘事格調(diào)”
浪漫主義將“死亡”定義為理想境界里的“復(fù)歸”不僅僅是一種情感的欲求和回歸,更是一種唯美自然的敘事格調(diào);而其敘事規(guī)則也表現(xiàn)為一種“回歸自然”原則。小說(shuō)《邊城》演繹的是一次唯美之死,展現(xiàn)的是作者清新浪漫的死亡理想,同樣是一種詩(shī)意境界的“復(fù)歸”。沈從文作為自覺的敘述者、歌者,一方面使他在躋身都市生活里自覺地以“鄉(xiāng)下人”的目光和評(píng)判尺度來(lái)看待中國(guó)的都市文明,表現(xiàn)人性最真切的欲望;另一方面追求人性的自然張揚(yáng)以及強(qiáng)健生命力的健康發(fā)展。沈從文執(zhí)著于“人性追求”,強(qiáng)調(diào)生命力的張揚(yáng),歌頌古老人性的健康淳樸,嘆惋現(xiàn)代文明入侵下的人性變異;在宣揚(yáng)“人性復(fù)歸”的同時(shí),也將“死亡”作為“人性復(fù)歸”理想的實(shí)現(xiàn),這在一定程度上表現(xiàn)了他獨(dú)特的地域的、民族的文化歷史態(tài)度,也是他在城鄉(xiāng)對(duì)峙的整體結(jié)構(gòu)中批判文明在進(jìn)入中國(guó)的初始階段的丑陋的創(chuàng)作理想。《邊城》敘寫了一個(gè)悲劇,小說(shuō)中似是而非的“死亡結(jié)局”是極具浪漫主義色彩的,恰恰表現(xiàn)了沈從文對(duì)“湘西”的未來(lái)無(wú)法預(yù)知的困惑與現(xiàn)實(shí)沖擊理想的矛盾,表現(xiàn)了創(chuàng)作主體在理想境界里的期許和限度,但作品的敘述并不給人奇崛的震撼或特別的悲郁,在作者詩(shī)意和抒情的筆端,生、死、聚、散,一切都是那么自然。在這里道家的“天人合一”以及“回歸自然”的思想得到了一種完美體現(xiàn)。而“死亡”在這里被演繹成一種那種簡(jiǎn)樸、原始、悠遠(yuǎn)的感覺;現(xiàn)代化社會(huì)發(fā)展進(jìn)程的必然使生命的更迭成為不可回避的現(xiàn)實(shí),在渴望人類樸素文明與排斥現(xiàn)代“文明”的沖突中,創(chuàng)作主體營(yíng)造了“不悖乎人性的人生形式”的死亡道德的“烏托邦”,流露出對(duì)工業(yè)文明污染后的現(xiàn)代社會(huì)的失望與“情感的回歸”的價(jià)值模式。
參考文獻(xiàn):
關(guān)鍵詞:離騷;神曲;綜述;比較研究
20世紀(jì)80年代起對(duì)《離騷》和《神曲》進(jìn)行比較研究的文章逐漸增多。這些文章大體可以分為三類:一類是就但丁和屈原出身家世、時(shí)代背景、人格精神等進(jìn)行的比較研究。如1988年發(fā)表在《西北民族學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)》上的《屈原和但丁》一文,[1]從兩位詩(shī)人的出身家世、生活的時(shí)代背景、生活經(jīng)歷、創(chuàng)作動(dòng)機(jī),以及作品的思想內(nèi)容、創(chuàng)作手法、寫作技巧、對(duì)后世文學(xué)的影響等七個(gè)方面,進(jìn)行了多方位的比較研究。
蔡守湘先生《屈原與但丁》一文,通過二者比較研究來(lái)探討世界浪漫主義文學(xué)發(fā)展規(guī)律,指出屈原與但丁創(chuàng)作浪漫主義文學(xué)的心理機(jī)制相同,形成這種心理機(jī)制的主客觀條件也類似,他們強(qiáng)烈的集體意識(shí)和鮮明的個(gè)體意識(shí)結(jié)合,凝結(jié)為創(chuàng)作的主體意識(shí),成為創(chuàng)作內(nèi)驅(qū)力;之后探討了構(gòu)成浪漫主義文學(xué)的三大要素:“馳騁想象,縱筆虛構(gòu);取材詭異,進(jìn)行超現(xiàn)實(shí)的描寫;運(yùn)用象征等表現(xiàn)手法”;最后論述了二者的相異之處及原因,得出了浪漫主義文學(xué)的發(fā)展規(guī)律,即無(wú)論是中國(guó)的或外國(guó)的浪漫主義文學(xué),都是從古代神話發(fā)源,以主體意識(shí)作為內(nèi)驅(qū)力,進(jìn)行虛構(gòu),運(yùn)用象征手法,進(jìn)行超現(xiàn)實(shí)藝術(shù)描寫奇特詭異的題材,借以評(píng)判現(xiàn)世人生,表達(dá)作者的理想。[2]該篇文章立意較高,力圖通過對(duì)兩位作者及作品的比較探究浪漫主義文學(xué)產(chǎn)生、發(fā)展的規(guī)律。
李昌云等《求誠(chéng)與求真:屈原與但丁之比較》一文,結(jié)合兩位詩(shī)人身世、作品,認(rèn)為他們身上體現(xiàn)兩種不同的人格核心:求誠(chéng)與求真,屈原一生只為對(duì)君主表明其誠(chéng)心,這是因?yàn)橹袊?guó)知識(shí)分子始終依附君主,未能獲得人格獨(dú)立和自由思想;但丁的人格核心是求真,即對(duì)真理的追求,“西方知識(shí)分子求真,首先是針對(duì)自身的,即是認(rèn)識(shí)真正的我,對(duì)自己人性中的善惡都要進(jìn)行梳理”;中國(guó)知識(shí)分子“求誠(chéng)”,解決的是一個(gè)人應(yīng)該怎樣的問題,而西方知識(shí)分子“求真”,實(shí)際上解決的是一個(gè)人是怎樣,為什么會(huì)這樣,怎樣更好的問題;最后探究了形成這種差異的原因:中西方地理環(huán)境與物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)方式、社會(huì)政治制度、知識(shí)分子的產(chǎn)生方式等。[3]這篇文章挖掘比較深刻,通過兩位作家作品比較,深入到了各自的文化內(nèi)核,以各自的文化系y作為參照背景,觸及到了中西方知識(shí)分子人格核心等深刻問題。
常勤毅《比較美學(xué)視角下的但丁和屈原》一文,探討兩位有諸多相似的詩(shī)人如何得以產(chǎn)生及他們作品不朽的美學(xué)特質(zhì)。該文指出,孕育著改革風(fēng)暴的動(dòng)蕩時(shí)代,矛盾、復(fù)雜又開放的思想和憂患意識(shí),以愛國(guó)主義為精神內(nèi)涵的高潔人格,具有開拓性的藝術(shù)獨(dú)創(chuàng)等是一個(gè)偉大作家得以產(chǎn)生的條件;指出兩位作家作品的不朽在于規(guī)模宏大的體制及浪漫主義表現(xiàn)手法。[4]
可以看出這一類文章中有的挖掘比較深入,豐富了比較研究成果。此外還有幾篇也屬于這一類文章,但是相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)屬于淺層的比較,論述需要進(jìn)一步深入,此不多做介紹。
第二類比較研究?jī)刹孔髌返乃枷雰?nèi)容及藝術(shù)特色。黃頗《比較論》從兩位詩(shī)人生活的時(shí)代和國(guó)度、出身的階級(jí)、個(gè)人的社會(huì)理想、政治遭遇和才情學(xué)識(shí)出發(fā),比較二詩(shī)的思想內(nèi)容和藝術(shù)形式,指出二詩(shī)都塑造了詩(shī)人理想化的美女形象,都采用了夢(mèng)幻文學(xué)形象。[5]
呂永《與》指出兩者在“匡惡順美、激濁揚(yáng)清”上的相似性,兩部作品采用幻游形式,采用了當(dāng)?shù)孛窀韪衤桑嘉×朔窖运渍Z(yǔ)入詩(shī)。[6]
翟振業(yè)指出《離騷》和《神曲》都表達(dá)了對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)的不滿,都批判現(xiàn)實(shí)社會(huì),藝術(shù)上兩者比喻和象征的運(yùn)用都十分出色;指出《離騷》繼承了《詩(shī)經(jīng)》的賦、比、興手法,將直陳與象征結(jié)合起來(lái),構(gòu)成完整的象征性藝術(shù)形象;《神曲》擅長(zhǎng)明喻,使用明喻有兩種方式,一是先寫主體,后以客體作喻,二是先寫客體,后與主體相比;《神曲》的象征則有豐富的表現(xiàn),有的人物是象征的,有的事物是象征的,作品結(jié)構(gòu)也是象征的。[7]
這類文章都遵循了一定的模式,即先談兩部作品的思想內(nèi)容,再討論藝術(shù)特色。這些文章并沒有擺脫傳統(tǒng)的從作家身世、時(shí)代背景、人格精神等出發(fā)進(jìn)行研究的方法,但是開始聚焦于兩部作品本身的藝術(shù)特色。比如翟振業(yè)《與的比較研究》這篇文章對(duì)兩部作品的比喻和象征進(jìn)行了比較詳盡的研究。但是由于仍舊是采取主觀闡釋的方法,論述起來(lái)層次不怎么分明,沒有看到象征實(shí)質(zhì)上是位于文本不同層級(jí)上的。
第三類文章聚焦于比較研究?jī)刹孔髌返膶徝捞匦曰蛘呶膶W(xué)性。李萬(wàn)均比較了《離騷》和《神曲》的戲劇性,指出《離騷》中的靈氛、巫咸等就是扮演的戲劇角色,《神曲》的天堂篇幾乎全部由對(duì)話體組成;此外還比較討論了兩部作品的象征性及形象塑造,指出它們的比喻多具有象征性,分析了丈夫、美人、花草、太陽(yáng)、動(dòng)物形象等的不同象征意義,辨析了作品中的女性形象。[8]李萬(wàn)均的論文擺脫了從作家生平身世、時(shí)代環(huán)境出發(fā)的社會(huì)學(xué)研究方法,深入涉及到了兩部作品的審美特色,就戲劇性、形象塑造、象征意義等進(jìn)行了較為詳細(xì)的分析論證,對(duì)于從美學(xué)特征上認(rèn)識(shí)兩部作品有很大的幫助。
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[7]張寧.文化主義與意識(shí)形態(tài)幻象[D].武漢大學(xué)2011
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[2]衛(wèi)華.波希米亞運(yùn)動(dòng)與歷史先鋒派的藝術(shù)行為理路[J].求索.2010(05)
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[6]陳劍瀾.從感性學(xué)到審美烏托邦--現(xiàn)代美學(xué)早期的一段問題史[J].江蘇社會(huì)科學(xué).2010(06)
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[5]施立峻.藝術(shù)自律性與當(dāng)代中國(guó)語(yǔ)境--從法蘭克福學(xué)派批判美學(xué)的藝術(shù)自律性原則理論出發(fā)[J].上海交通大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)(哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版).2006(03)
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There are many domains research about romanticism. Whereas, the research about British positive romanticism is little. The positive romanticism has its remarkable characteristics in the various countries. The English positive romanticism pushed the romanticism literature to the high tide. Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind is one of the best works of positive romanticism of Britain. This thesis mainly analyzes the background of Ode to the West Wind, and the features of positive romanticism. This thesis appreciates Ode to the West Wind in various ways by analyzing the subjectivism, the political lyricism, idealism. This thesis also illustrates the features of human being admiration for nature. Both the style of this poem and the writing ways of the poem express the British positive romanticism characteristics vividly.
Key Words
Ode to the West Wind; British; positive romanticism
摘 要
文學(xué)的研究有很多領(lǐng)域,對(duì)浪漫主義的研究也有很多,但是把積極浪漫主義獨(dú)立起來(lái)研究卻很少。積極浪漫主義的特征在各國(guó)國(guó)家都有其顯著的鮮明的特征。在英國(guó)積極浪漫主義詩(shī)人用積極浪漫主義文學(xué)把浪漫主義文學(xué)推到了。雪萊的《西風(fēng)頌》是英國(guó)積極浪漫主義的優(yōu)秀作品,該論文通過對(duì)《西風(fēng)頌》創(chuàng)作背景及積極浪漫主義的定義分析;及對(duì)該詩(shī)歌特征的賞析,充分地展現(xiàn)了積極浪漫主義主觀性、政治抒情性、理想性。該論文也表現(xiàn)了崇尚自然熱愛自然等特點(diǎn)。又從詩(shī)歌的創(chuàng)作風(fēng)格、寫作方法等特征都把英國(guó)乃至整個(gè)歐洲的積極浪漫主義的特征表現(xiàn)的淋淋盡至。
關(guān)鍵詞
西風(fēng)頌; 英國(guó); 積極浪漫主義;
Introduction
The romanticism is often regarded as an important branch of literature. It completely manifested the social characteristic of British at that fixed period, and expressed the society's request through literature. Therefore, the close relation between literature and society was fully displayed.
The romanticism developed extremely fast in British. The essence of romanticism reflected present situation and the needs of society. Moreover, positive romanticism in Britain has manifested the different of positive romanticism characteristic. Therefore, the positive romanticism also reflected the culture of British in 19th century.
Poetry is an effective way to express positive romanticism. In order to better understand the positive romanticism, it is necessary to realize the superficial meaning and the deep meaning that the poetry express. Ode to the West Wind as one of the famous work of the English positive romanticism at that fixed period, it manifest the English positive romanticism in various kinds of ways. It can be found that Ode to the West Wind is concluded with triumphant and hopeful mind. This poem has a deep influence on his generation and almost changed the value of his people.
I. The Definition of Romanticism and Positive Romanticism
At the early 19th century, pan-European movement took place in art and philosophy. The term derives from the Romances of the Middle Ages, and it refers to the idealization of reality. In the late 18th century, it began to mean anti-Classicalism and it also represented a trend towards the picturesque and the Gothic, nostalgia, mystery and dramatic love .e.g. Walpole, Beckford and Fuseli. By the early 19th century, it had been broadened in many aspects, such as enthusiasm, the rediscovery of the artist as a supremely inpidual creator, the development of nationalistic pride, and the exaltation of the senses and emotions over reason and intellect. In addition, romanticism is a philosophical revolt against rationalism and intellect. This breadth of meaning has led to the definition of Romanticism as a 'feeling' and very little else.
In Britain, the term refers to his literary and artistic movement of the late 18th and early 19th century. Romanticism rejected the earlier philosophy of the Enlightenment, which stressed that logic and reason were the best response human had in the face of cruelty, stupidity, superstition, and barbarism. Instead, the romantics asserted that reliance upon emotion and natural passions provided romantic movement typically asserts the unique nature of the inpidual, the privileged status of imagination and fancy, the value of spontaneity over “artifice” and “convention,” the human need for emotional outlets, the rejection of civilized corruption, and a desire to return to natural primitivism and escape the spiritual destruction of urban life. Their writings are often set in rural or Gothic settings and they show an obsessive concern with “innocent” characters-children, young lovers, and animals. The major romantic poets included William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Gordon Byron.
Artistic and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century and stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions. Romanticism, attitude or intellectual orientation that characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. Romanticism can be regard as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18th-century Neoclassicism in particular. To some extent, it is also reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-century rationalism and physical materialism in general. Romanticism emphasizes the inpidual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and so on.
Compared with passive romanticism, positive romanticism strengthens the will of men, and arouses the rebellion against reality and any else. Positive romanticism is that celebrated the power of inpidual self to create a world or to raise its particular conditions.
II. The Background of Romanticism and Positive Romanticism
Romanticism was one of the trends of literary and artistic thought, produces with the 18th century, at the beginning of 19 centuries Europe bourgeois revolution time.
In 18th century France's Enlightenment idealism advocated freedom of thought, emancipation of man's inpidual character and returning to the nature, and requested breaking royal power. In 19th century romanticism movements was started in European.
In the 19th century Europe various countries labor movement and the revolutionary movements are blustery. The working class in England strived for their own rights to subsistence, the same bourgeoisie launches the heroic struggle, took of a literature performance real life important methods, it with the time revolution mood associated production revolution literature, the revolutionary literature and the romanticism union has formed the positive romanticism. Byron and Shelley are representatives for British positive romanticism.
III.The Background of Shelley and Ode to the West Wind
A. The Background of Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792—1822), England’s greatest lyric poet, came from a family of some importance and power. His father was Sussex county gentleman and a Whig Member of Parliament; his grand-farther, who became a baronet, had amassed a great fortune. Shelley, the oldest son, accordingly grew up with the prospect of becoming a man of wealth and title. At Eton, he proved a good classical scholar, but was not very happy, for he was by nature revolutionary and unconventional. He was known as “mad shelly” and astronomy, and the exciting experiments he conducted, gave rise to many stories. The persecutions which he endured and witnessed at school gave him a lifelong detestation of tyranny and violence.
Shelley went to Oxford full of plans and ideas for changing the system of society. Being convinced that religious faiths were harmful to man’s happiness, he and his friend T.J.HoggH put forth a small study in logic, called the Necessity of Altheism, which was objected by the Oxford authorities , however, shelly and Hogg declined to discuss the matter. As a result they were sent off. It was a disaster for a boy at 18, for he lost a valuable education at Oxford. He fell out with his father and became a wan-darer. Though he would eventually inherit a fortune, he had no ready money. When he was 19, he eloped with Harriet Westbrook, a girl of 16 whom he scarcely knew. From Then on, shelly, always full of schemes, went on a quixotic expedition to redress the wrongs of the Irish; from Lyn mouth shortly afterwards he distributed a seditious pamphlet called the rights of man, scattering some copies by balloon and putting others into bottles and throwing them into the sea. In 1813 he printed and published extraordinary poem, Queen Mab privately which expressed his belief in a new golden age.
In his glorification of revolutionary ideas, Shelley had sought out William Godwin, author of political justice, who had married Mary Wollstonecraft, author of The Rights of Women. His marriage with Harriet proved a complete failure; Shelly eloped with Godwin’s 15-year-old daughter Mary. But that year Harriet was found drowned in the serpentine and her two children by shelly became the subject of a lawsuit. For Shelley, he was not only deeply shocked by the tragedy but also suffered the bitterness of losing his children. However, the life had to go on. To get rid of solitude, he married Mary Godwin later at Marlow, on the Thames. There, in 1816, he wrote Ablator, or the Spirit of Solitude, the first long poem to show his true genius. Next year he wrote a long imaginative poem on liberty and love, the Revolt of Islam, which contained many fine passages of description and narrative and was inspired by the French Revolution.
At that time, Shelly had become a friend of Leigh Hunt and Peacock and had met Keats. Finally in 1818, to escape prejudice and insult, and also Godwin’s constant demands for money, Shelley decided to seek peace in Italy. There shelly gave up his dream of reforming the world by the means of direct political action and decided to pass on his inspiration to others through his poetry. In this belief he composed his Prometheus Unbound, enjoyed for its incomparable music, its color and story, as well as because it contained Shelly’s noblest ideas. To this period, too, he wrote his Lines in the Eugenia Hills and Julian and Maddalo, an autobiographical poem based on a happy visit to Byron in VeniceH. Meanwhile Shelly wrote his finest lyric, such as the Cloud, the Skylark, the Ode to the West Wind and so on. The music and intensity showed that Shelly was entering on a new stage of personal and imaginative greatness.
B. The Background of Ode to the West Wind
The poem was composed in 1819 when European labor movement and the revolutionary movement surged. To fight for their right, British working class began to struggle with the bourgeoisie. At August of that year, 80,000 workers in Manchester held a massive demonstration. Of course, the reactionary authorities had dispatched troops to suppress. That was well-known as the Bideilei Massacre. For Shelley was in favor of British revolution, he was expelled from the United Kingdom. Then he came to Italy, he met Keats, had made great influence to Shelley a lot on revolutionary cause. Form the above; we can see that in Britain there was no freedom.
Ode to the West Wind is the most representative of Shelley’s feelings and thoughts at that time. It is a mixture of death and rebirth. Shelley is concerned with the regeneration of himself spiritually and poetically and of Europe politically. In the first three stanzas, the dynamic force of the west wind is manifested in its power on the land, in the air, and in the sea in different seasons. It is the destroyer and preserver. It will destroy the old world and herald in a new one. In the fourth stanza Shelley wishes that he were a leaf, a cloud, and a wave, so that he could feel the power of the west wind; but he is aware of his age and his sufferings in life, which have bent him down. Finally, he appeals to the wind, the wind of aspiration and change, to reinvigorate him and to give force and persuasiveness to his poetry.
IV. The Features of Positive Romanticism in Ode to the West Wind
A. Enthusiasm
The romanticism has two big branches which are the negative romanticism and the positive romanticism. To a certain extent the positive romanticism has its positive characteristic as the name suggests.
The positive romanticism mostly manifests in the positive romanticism poet dares to face the reality, critique society's darkness, is spearheaded at the feudal aristocracy, opposed in the capitalist society survives the feudal factor, simultaneously all sorts of evil phenomenon which creates to bourgeoisie itself also has the exposition, thus the fill revolt, the fight fervor, will send ideally in the future, will yearn for the new happy life. In this poem, Shelley wants to create a new free country. He talks of the “Mediterranean” and the “summer dream”. In the dream, the reader finds the sea lying “Beside a pumice isle in baize’s bay quivering within the waves’ in tenser day”. Shelley implants the ideas of volcano with the word “pumice.” The “old palaces and tower” stir vivid image of ancient Rome and Greece in readers mind. Shelley also uses these images in the sea’s dream to show that the natural world and the human social and political world are parallel.
B. Subjectivism
In the poem the west wind is not merely the wind of the nature, the subject which is the counter-capitalism counter-old influence, instead of regarding poetry as “a minor to nature” the source of which is in the outer world, romantic poets describe poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful felling” which express the poets mind.
In Ode to the West Wind, Percy Bysshe Shelley tries to gain transcendence, for he shows his thoughts, like the "winged seeds" trapped. The west wind acts as a driving force for change and rejuvenation in the human and natural world. Shelley views winter not just as last phase of vegetation but as the last phase of life in the inpidual, the imagination, civilization and religion. Shelley looks forward to freedom. From this “winged seeds” it presents image of flying and freedom. The important word is “seeds” for it which shows that even in death, new life will grow out of “grave” the phrase “winged seeds” also brings images of religions, angels or souls which can create new life continuously.
Heavenly images are confirmed by his use of the word “azure” which is also defined besides the meaning of blue sky, In Webster’s dictionary, as an “unclouded vault of the heaven”, the word “azure” is connected with the word “spring”, and it helps show Shelley’s view of rejuvenation. In addition, the word “spring” also means to rise up except being a literary metaphor for rebirth. In line nine, Shelley uses soft sounding phrases to communicate the blowing of the wind, this tierce cuts as an introduction and foreshadow of what is to come later. Shelley goes on to talk of the wind as a “destroyer and preserver”. The wind is also a person that to create freedom. Form this we can see that “wind” is a power which can destroy the old day and create new life. Therefore, Ode to the West Wind is a song of revolution at that time.
C. Idealism and Imagination
Just like Gorky pointed out “the romanticism is one mood, it complex moreover throughout how many fuzzily reflected actually is covering transition time society's all feelings and the mood color, but, its main key is to new thing anticipation”. The romanticism refers to the appearance according to the people, through the life phenomenon idealization description, and them displays certain social psychology and the emotion creation method. The romanticism ideal displays in the character image mold are the romanticism which is based on the basis of the idealized principle, through the unreal plot, in a special environment, exerts oneself in the description ideal the character image. These characters often have the unusual super human's moral character, ability and the behavior. The positive also inherit this feature.
轉(zhuǎn)貼于 In this poem we can see that Shelley wants to establish a new free society. “drive my dead thoughts over the incantation of this verse; like wither,d leaves to quicken a new birth”, and “if winter comes, can spring be far behind”. It is obvious that Shelley is looking forward to new thoughts and new society.
On behalf of the positive of romantic, Shelly can’t see the future of socialism, but he also can't escape the circle of ideal socialism. It makes another feature of positive of romantic idealism. Does the poet describe what they will create in this poem?
D. Political Tendentiousness
Judging from the background of the positive romanticism, the positive romanticism must have certain characteristic belonged to that era. Political tendentiousness is the positive romanticism to that time reflection and the portrayal.
From Ode to the West Wind we can feel the intense of political tendentiousness, the west wind is “destroyer and preserver”, the west wind Cleans these which “yellow, and black and pale, and hectic red” Heartless. The west wind “thou on whose stream , mid the steep shy,s commotion”. The west wind is not the nature wind. It is the revolution wind, the wind against bourgeoisie, and against the power of Feudal.
E. Emotion and Nature
The romanticism poet's poetry mostly originates from the nature. Nature for the romanticists comes to the forefront of the poetic imagination. Nature is not only the major source of poetic imagery, but provides the dominant subject matter. Wordsworth conceives of nature as “the nurse, the guide and guardian of my heart and soul.” Nature to the romanticists is a source of cleanliness and spiritual understanding; it is a teacher; it is the stepping-stone between man and god, so romantic poets mostly take describing the nature to eulogize the nature as the subject. The positive romanticism poet has not discarded this characteristic.
According to Shelley said “the idea of writing this first poem is basically. In Florence Arnoux river bank woods, same day the temperature is genial, fresh, but this storm is gathering the moisture, under the incline the autumn rain”. From this the poet has felt the wild westerly wind, and life of the fall breath. Then the poet wrote westerly wind only because of this real, and the magnificent sight.
From the poem it is can be seen that Shelley was eulogy the west wind, but he was not just a singers, he Represents taking the westerly wind as the topic, taking the subject in the nature, and this is full of the fervor the poetic composition, selects a scene in this is naturally the romanticism universal characteristic also is the positive romanticism characteristic, does obeisance? Wordsworth sends the poet in a big way for representative's lakeside always describes the nature .in this poem Shelley described the change of the fall. The poet creates originating from the Italian Florence's suburb. Is precisely because the poet is good at observing the nature, only then had this classical poetry.
The romanticism writers all advocate the nature. Is naturally they express the feelings the nature carry. The romanticism work is often expressed the feelings, and author’s emotion pouring out swiftly with reveals. The positive romanticism is more radical, therefore the sentiment expresses intensely. Shelley has also displayed this characteristic in Ode to the West Wind. This poem starts from the eulogy westerly wind, in fourth Stanza “if I were a dead level thou mightiest bear; if I were a swift cloud to fly with thee” The poet compares oneself to others by the westerly wind. The poet expressed the poet the deep love and yearned for the nature through the westerly wind. He used the westerly wind to urge on oneself, expressed the free pursuit, with the hope to establish happy world.
F. Syncretism with Other Art
Form this poem, it can be found that very strange rhyme, because Shelley use the tetrza rima. It is a three line unit a tercet .rhyming a b a, the “b” rhyme is carried into next tercet ,b c b ,each stanzas has four tercets of interlocking rhyme and ends in a couplet using the middle rhyme of the last tercet. Thus the rhyme schemes are a b a, c d c, d e d and go on. It makes the rhyme very cheerful, and it also enables the poem and has the very strong rhythm, and highlight the musicality. It is just the same as Dante's Divine Comedy. From this poem, it also can be found that the beauty of music from the west wind, “make thy lyre, even as the forest is”. The Aeolian harp gives musical sounds as the wind blows through it. Here the forest is compared to the Aeolian harp lyre, and the poet prays that he also maybe the Aeolian harp so that he could feel the power of the west wind. It makes the sound of west wind more vivid and makes the poem more musical.
G. The Writing Style
The writing style of the poem efficiently reflects the features of positive romanticism.
a. The Free Writing Style
There are differences between writing techniques of romanticism and literature before it. In style, the romantic poets are prefer to boldness over the preceding age’s desire for restraint, maximum suggestiveness over the neoclassical ideal of clarity, free experimentation over the “rules” of composition, genre, and decorum, and they promoted the conception of the artist as “inspired” creator over that classicism literature which sticks to old ways equally, constrains the inpiduality, and it isn’t like the realism literature same language to encourage sharply, but is pursues the inpiduality liberation creation absolutely free, the poetry aspect is not tracking down traditional the form. Displays in the romanticism literature creation many and varied creation style.
First, romanticism is good at using the technique of exaggerating symbol. It also likes utilizing the magnificent literary flourishes, in the work fills the vivid rich analogy, causes beautiful and ugly, friendly and forms the sharp contrast and the striking comparison wickedly. The positive romanticism has completely inherited these characteristics of romanticism, and the language even more encourages.
In 19th, many poets like writing poem. Poem is the best choice for many positive romantic poets. For example,the most famous work of Byron is Don Juan, the most famous poem of Keats is Ode to a Nightingale. Because poem can express their feelings and it is one kind of art language, the poem is one kind of art which is to the soul and to the exploration. The poem can express the inner soul. It can make the distance between the human and the poetry closer. It also can form the sympathetic chord, and reach the effect of beautiful enjoyment. The poem is one kind of creativity. It does not stop using the language to create inner world. As the energetic movement, it is the way to liberate inner feelings, so it indicates another world. The poem is supposed to be revolutionary and timeliness. Sometimes it is mind record, which is based on the background of time. The poem is in the form of rhythmic, so the artistic effect is very obvious. All of these are expressed by the positive poets.
b. The Feature of the Poem’s Words
Romanticism is different from the realism and other literature, the words of romantic literature are very flowery, which is the as the positive romanticism. From this poem we also can get the feature. In this poem the feature of the language gorgeous mainly displays in the strong sentimental color and the bright demeanor. For example, when the poet writes the leaves, he uses the “Yellow, black, pale, hectic red”, and when he writes the wind there are many places using the word “hear”, which express that many time the poet wants to make the hearing and the vision unify to make the word more vivid.
The words of this poem’ express intense Summons, for example, “Pestilence-stricken multitudes, with living hues and odors plain and hill, of the horizon to the zenith's height, like writher’s leaves to quicken a new birth. If Winter comes, can spring be far behind?”
H. Rhetoric Device
a. Hyperbole
In this poem, Shelley used many hyperboles. Hyperbole in other words is exaggeration. It puts a picture into the readers mind. Hyperbole is frequently used in humorous writings. Hyperbole is common in humorous poetry, because it can make a point in a light-hearted way. It can be used to poke fun at someone or something. In this poem the hyperbole is used clearly; poet’s thoughts change very fast. Sometimes it maybe in the sky, but sometimes it is in the Mediterranean.
b. The Symbol Device
In the romantic poets view the symbol is aesthetic correlatives of nature’s emblematic language. There are great values because they could simultaneously suggest many tings, and they are regard as being superior to the one –to –one communications of allegory. Partly, it may have been the desire to express the “inexpressible” the infinite through the available resources of language that led to symbol at one level and myth (as symbolic narrative) at another. "Ode to the West Wind" used the symbol device, the entire first poem surrounds the autumn westerly wind to write an essay from the beginning to end, regardless of is describes the scenery or expresses feelings, all has not been separated from this specific description object, has not used political terminology and revolutionizes the slogan. However read after this short poem, we deep deeply feel actually, Shelley in sings the westerly wind, is incompletely sings the westerly wind, in the poet essence is through sings the westerly wind to sing to revolutionize. In poem westerly wind, remnant leaf, seed, class cloud, rainstorm thunder and lightning, sea mighty waves, seabed colored tree and so on, all is the symbolic things, they are containing the profound implication, the moving scenery which the nature wind and cloud surges, is the world vigorous development revolutionary struggle symbolic reflection.
Conclusion
The romanticism has two aspects. There are positive romanticism and the negative romanticism. Literature has regional characteristic, so positive romanticism in British has their own characteristic. The romanticism asserted that reliance upon emotion and love and passions for nature provided a valid and powerful means of knowing and a reliable guidance to ethics and living.
The Ode to the West Wind took the world literature, and it has manifested many characteristics of positive romanticism, but it didn’t completely manifest the positive romanticism characteristic. Subjectivism, idealism, deeply loves for nature all embodiment the characteristics of positive romanticism.
Shelley is one of the repressive of positive romanticism. To some extent, Shelley is famous for “Ode to the West wind”. This poem is filled with triumphant and hopeful emotion.
This thesis targets at analyzing the features of positive romanticism. There also exist some faults in this thesis. The author hopes other English learners make more research.
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摘要:在德國(guó)浪漫主義文化時(shí)期,涌現(xiàn)了一大批著名的小說(shuō)家,之中,一種亦夢(mèng)亦幻的文風(fēng)在當(dāng)時(shí)由于政治的緣故在文壇蔓延開來(lái),《茵夢(mèng)湖》是小說(shuō),《金罐》是童話,然而兩者卻由于相同的時(shí)代而有了許多相似性。
關(guān)鍵詞:浪漫主義;象征符號(hào);隱喻
“Viel sp ter erst wird ihm klar werden, wie sehr er sich damals vornahm, niemals zu lieben, um keinen in die entsetzliche Lage zu bringen, geliebt zu sein.”
“許久之后他才明白,他當(dāng)時(shí)的決定是多么的錯(cuò)誤,再也不愛,誰(shuí)也替代不了這個(gè)地位”。里爾克的這句略帶傷感的話是這部小說(shuō),《茵夢(mèng)湖》的最佳寫照,也是《金罐》中純真人們的心情流露。
1.《茵夢(mèng)湖》簡(jiǎn)介
《茵夢(mèng)湖》是德國(guó)著名作家施篤姆(1817~1888)的作品,其最著名的作品當(dāng)屬白馬騎士,而于我而言,茵夢(mèng)湖的影響力及對(duì)人心靈的震撼絲毫不亞于與其同時(shí)期的莫泊桑或者是契訶夫,該作家文筆秀雅,風(fēng)格樸實(shí),若論文風(fēng)相近的作家,屠格涅夫的中短篇可與之相媲美,然而相比較而言,屠格涅夫的作品更加世俗化,而這篇純凈的茵夢(mèng)湖,淡淡的世俗生活的反映,更多的是淡雅的文字,清新的鄉(xiāng)村景色,以及,熱烈而惆悵的德國(guó)民歌,這一切都使得這樣的作品有著別樣的魅力。
《茵夢(mèng)湖》描寫了一對(duì)青年男女的愛情悲劇。萊因哈德和伊麗莎白青梅竹馬,情愛甚篤,可是伊麗莎白的母親卻把女兒嫁給了家境富裕的埃利希。多年后,萊因哈德應(yīng)邀去埃利希在茵夢(mèng)湖的莊園,舊日的戀人相見卻是一片惆悵,萊因哈德自此全力以赴投身于學(xué)術(shù)的研究中。文章以倒敘的形式慢慢展開。在結(jié)構(gòu)上是典型的施篤姆敘事框架:現(xiàn)在――過去――現(xiàn)在,即從主人公孤寂的現(xiàn)在開始,轉(zhuǎn)回到甜蜜而痛苦的過去,最后再回到其孤寂的現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中。
1.1 《茵夢(mèng)湖》中的藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)力 民歌
作者一生醉心于收集民歌,在本書中就出現(xiàn)了大量的德國(guó)民歌,這些民歌本身優(yōu)美至極,而且對(duì)故事情節(jié)的發(fā)展和人物性格的揭示起著極為重要的作用。在這些歌中,我們能夠找到自己的所作所為,能夠找到自己所受的苦難,仿佛我們大家都參與了譜寫了這些歌寫似的。”試看下例:
“這一天就這樣過去了。――萊因哈特終究還是找到了一些東西;雖然并不是草莓,卻也是長(zhǎng)在樹林里的。回家后,他在那本舊羊皮本里寫下了這樣的詩(shī)句:
‘在這山坡上
風(fēng)聲靜寂;
低垂的樹枝下
坐著女孩。
她靜坐在麝香草叢里,
她坐在純潔的芬芳中;
青蠅發(fā)出嗡嗡的聲響
空中飛舞著閃亮的翅膀。
樹林是如此地寧?kù)o,
她的眼神是這樣機(jī)敏;
在她褐色的卷發(fā)上,
流瀉著燦爛的陽(yáng)光。
遠(yuǎn)處傳來(lái)杜鵑的笑聲,
我忽然閃過一個(gè)念頭:
她有一雙金色的眼睛,
就像森林里的仙后。’”
因而她不只是他的保護(hù)對(duì)象;對(duì)他說(shuō)來(lái),她同時(shí)體現(xiàn)了他青春時(shí)期一切可愛的,奇妙的事物。
從這樣的兩首小詩(shī)就可以看出,德國(guó)民歌的優(yōu)美及口語(yǔ)化的特點(diǎn)。
這樣的優(yōu)美的故事,說(shuō)是現(xiàn)實(shí),毋寧把它看做是一部童話,文中主人公這樣單純的性格,如詩(shī)畫般的意境,無(wú)一不彰顯著德國(guó)浪漫主義詩(shī)人終生所追求的那朵藍(lán)花(blauer Blumchen),童話般的小說(shuō)。
2.《金罐》及其作者
在施篤姆出生三年前出現(xiàn)一部偉大的作品,那就是霍夫曼的《金罐》,很多很多年前,讀了金罐,不過對(duì)于那時(shí)的我而言,它僅僅是一部童話,從來(lái)就沒想過他背后所隱藏的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義,結(jié)合作者自身的曲折經(jīng)歷來(lái)看,金罐這樣的作品純潔而有些頹廢的逃避現(xiàn)實(shí),與茵夢(mèng)湖同出一轍,而這樣的作品正是老一輩的作家所不愿意見到的,比如說(shuō)歌德,他一再表示,自己不喜歡里面那條小金蛇。
霍夫曼是個(gè)勤奮的不能再勤奮的人,以今人眼光視之,是renaissance man,文藝復(fù)興人,多才多藝的典型,他崇拜莫扎特,為此把自己的名字改成E.T.A Hoffman,即把中名Wlihelm改成Amandeus,即莫扎特的名字,他是出色的律師,夜晚化身為勤奮的作家,并且令人驚奇的是,他還會(huì)作曲,曾經(jīng)當(dāng)過樂隊(duì)指揮,在此期間,即1808年,發(fā)生了一件影響呀一生創(chuàng)作的事件,霍夫曼狂熱的愛上了年僅14歲的尤利婭 馬爾科(Julia Mark), 他的許多作品多以尤利婭為原型,比如廣為流傳的被柴可夫斯基改變的歌劇《胡桃夾子》。
在該作品《金罐》中,尤利婭化身為女主人公,圖書館館長(zhǎng)林德霍斯特的小女兒,一條小金蛇。男主人公安澤穆斯雖然天生擁有“童稚般的詩(shī)人氣質(zhì)”,但是卻是一個(gè)不諳世事的人,在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中卻總是做錯(cuò)事,在一個(gè)“耶穌圣天界的下午三點(diǎn)”,他在飛跑中撞上了賣蘋果的老太婆的籃子,當(dāng)他神色黯然的在一棵接骨木樹下抽煙,郁悶的把所有的錢賠給了老太婆之后,奇跡發(fā)生了:他遇見了三條小金蛇,并對(duì)其中一條長(zhǎng)著藍(lán)眼睛的小金蛇一見鐘情,安澤穆斯受友人托,為館長(zhǎng)謄寫文書,并在小金蛇的幫助下進(jìn)入幻境亞特蘭蒂斯,然而巫婆卻不斷的阻攔他進(jìn)入幻境,還制作了一面魔鏡,讓他愛上現(xiàn)實(shí)中的副館長(zhǎng)的女兒,最后安澤穆斯由于工作出錯(cuò),被館長(zhǎng)投入水晶瓶中,發(fā)現(xiàn)了自己的庸俗與錯(cuò)誤,最后與小金蛇一起奔赴亞特蘭蒂斯――夢(mèng)幻之城。
3.《金罐》與《茵夢(mèng)湖》中的物體隱喻
無(wú)疑的,這樣的結(jié)果是相當(dāng)完美的,類似于中國(guó)古代的牡丹亭,然而這樣的結(jié)果與茵夢(mèng)湖卻是截然不同的。茵夢(mèng)湖以悲劇結(jié)場(chǎng),而該文卻以喜劇收?qǐng)?然而卻有著相近的藝術(shù)效果。
首先,是兩文間的象征符號(hào)的意義:
金罐,是《金罐》一文的主要象征物,安澤穆斯第一次見到金罐時(shí),金罐被供奉在有三尊埃及雄獅所承載的巖石當(dāng)中,因而具有了非凡的價(jià)值和某種超自然的、神性的尊貴氣質(zhì)。在童話的最后,金罐中盛開的百合花向他揭示了萬(wàn)物之間存在的神圣和諧的奧秘,他也永遠(yuǎn)生活在這神圣和諧之中。由此可見,金罐的意義代表著詩(shī)意的王國(guó),引導(dǎo)人們走向更高意義的所在,人與萬(wàn)物的和諧。這些,正是所有浪漫主義者的追求。
而茵夢(mèng)湖,代表的也正是這樣一種崇高的,詩(shī)意的意境,我們可以從文中多次看到這樣的情形,茵夢(mèng)湖如何的美麗,風(fēng)景又是如何的秀雅,現(xiàn)實(shí)中的茵夢(mèng)湖與詩(shī)人理想中的茵夢(mèng)湖結(jié)合到一起,便是浪漫主義的典范,隱居的浪漫詩(shī)人的居所。
其二,是文中出現(xiàn)的象征物的隱喻意,比如,《金罐》中的古文手稿,對(duì)于一開始有著濃烈詩(shī)人氣質(zhì)的安澤穆斯而言,他能夠輕松的理解古代文字,然而到了后來(lái),他變得庸俗透頂,就無(wú)法理解這些文字的意義了。這古文的意義讓人十分容易理解,即代表了一種藝術(shù)理解力的指示,這種知識(shí)的作用在茵夢(mèng)湖里也同樣存在,即出現(xiàn)過很多次的白蓮花,即似指示純真的伊麗莎白,又似指示雙方可望而不可及的幸福。
4. 浪漫主義的后續(xù)時(shí)期
在德國(guó)浪漫主義時(shí)期中,涌現(xiàn)了一大批佳作,這兩朵異生花在該時(shí)期的重要性是顯而易見的,自此之后,德國(guó)的文學(xué)從世紀(jì)之交開始進(jìn)入了一個(gè)更為復(fù)雜多變,流派紛呈的文學(xué)發(fā)展的新階段,即自然主義,印象主義的多重流派之中。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]德國(guó)浪漫主義作品選孫鳳成 譯 北京 人民文學(xué)出版社 1997
[2]Hoffman E.T.A Der goldne Topf 1982
[3]德國(guó)浪漫主義時(shí)期童話研究 劉文杰 著 北京 北京理工大學(xué)出版社 2009.3
[4]弗蘭克. 德國(guó)早期浪漫主義美學(xué)導(dǎo)論. 聶軍 等譯 長(zhǎng)春:吉林人民出版社, 2005
[關(guān)鍵詞]《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》;傳統(tǒng);現(xiàn)代;非個(gè)人化
一
歷史總是在相對(duì)穩(wěn)定與激烈的斗爭(zhēng)的更替之中不斷前進(jìn)。每當(dāng)歷史處于轉(zhuǎn)型時(shí)期,文化出現(xiàn)斷裂時(shí)刻,傳統(tǒng)與現(xiàn)代之間的關(guān)系就變得極為突出,因而由文化危機(jī)引發(fā)的激烈的反傳統(tǒng)思潮必將盛行,舊有的傳統(tǒng)文化觀將被打破。在文學(xué)與文學(xué)理論上的發(fā)展則表現(xiàn)為在繼承傳統(tǒng)的精華的基礎(chǔ)上,又對(duì)傳統(tǒng)加以突破創(chuàng)新,從而促使新的流派和理論產(chǎn)生、發(fā)展、繁榮。艾略特對(duì)傳統(tǒng)的創(chuàng)造性理解和對(duì)現(xiàn)代的開拓性創(chuàng)新正是對(duì)20世紀(jì)初社會(huì)和文學(xué)領(lǐng)域的大變革所作出的回應(yīng)。
二
艾略特是20世紀(jì)最有影響的詩(shī)人和文學(xué)批評(píng)家之一。在文學(xué)批評(píng)方面他的主要著作有:《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》(1917)(《玄學(xué)派詩(shī)人》(1921)《批評(píng)的功能》(1923)和(《詩(shī)歌的用途和批評(píng)的用途》(1932-1933)等。在這些批評(píng)著作中,艾略特提出了一系列重要的理論觀點(diǎn),使其成為新批評(píng)派的開拓者之一。
艾略特的文學(xué)批評(píng)觀深受他在哈佛時(shí)期的老師白璧德的影響。白璧德的全部著作幾乎都是圍繞這樣一個(gè)主旨:美國(guó)的文學(xué)批評(píng)觀必須按照古典主義的人的價(jià)值觀加以矯正。他認(rèn)定浪漫主義是罪惡的源泉,他對(duì)浪漫主義作了前所未有的激烈批判,而通過對(duì)白璧德的著作加以分析我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)他對(duì)浪漫主義的批判絕對(duì)地是站在新古典主義的立場(chǎng)上的。“白璧德把現(xiàn)代社會(huì)紛亂的喉疾歸咎于浪漫主義的課程對(duì)艾略特產(chǎn)生了很大的影響,并為他的文藝批評(píng)觀奠定了基礎(chǔ)”。通過細(xì)讀《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》,我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)白璧德的文學(xué)思想對(duì)艾略特的文學(xué)理論觀所留下的影子。
1917年艾略特出版了他的第一本,也是他最有影響的文學(xué)論文集《圣林》,其中的《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》可以說(shuō)是影響最大的文學(xué)批評(píng)文章,是艾略特的集大成之作。文中蘊(yùn)含著極其豐富、復(fù)雜的文學(xué)理論思想。他非常重視傳統(tǒng),在文中他對(duì)傳統(tǒng)加以了重新的詮釋,并提出了具有現(xiàn)代內(nèi)涵的新的文學(xué)理論思想。因此我們可以稱他是傳統(tǒng)的現(xiàn)代主義者。對(duì)待一個(gè)事物我們不成窮盡認(rèn)識(shí),只能像東方朔在《答客難》中所說(shuō)的那樣“以管窺天,以蠡測(cè)海”。對(duì)《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》一文中根植于傳統(tǒng),走向現(xiàn)代的因素我們也只能加以管窺。
三
從文藝復(fù)興開始一直到20世紀(jì),歐洲文學(xué)總是忽略“傳統(tǒng)”的制約和引導(dǎo)作用,而崇尚個(gè)人主義的發(fā)展,強(qiáng)調(diào)依靠個(gè)人創(chuàng)新來(lái)對(duì)抗傳統(tǒng)和權(quán)威。所以長(zhǎng)期以來(lái),“傳統(tǒng)”逐漸被視為一個(gè)具有雙重性質(zhì)的東西:或者它被視為神圣不可侵犯的權(quán)威,從而使其成為一切保守事物的代名詞,或者它被視為無(wú)用的,從而成了束縛個(gè)人自由的東西,追尋歷史“傳統(tǒng)”就意味著抄襲過去,墨守成規(guī),是缺乏創(chuàng)造力的表現(xiàn)。
在《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》中,艾略特試圖校正人們對(duì)文學(xué)傳統(tǒng)的偏見。對(duì)于什么是“傳統(tǒng)”,艾略特在文中是這樣定義的: “傳統(tǒng)的意義實(shí)在要廣大得多。他不是繼承得來(lái)的,你如果要得到它,就需要用很大的勞力。第一,他含有歷史的意識(shí),我們可以說(shuō)這種意識(shí)對(duì)于任何人想在25歲以上還要繼續(xù)作詩(shī)人的差不多是不可缺少的,歷史的意識(shí)又含有一種領(lǐng)悟,不但要理解過去的過去性,而且還要理解過去的現(xiàn)存性;歷史的意識(shí)不但使人寫作時(shí)有他自己那一代的背景,而且還要感覺到從荷馬以來(lái)歐洲整個(gè)的文學(xué)及其本國(guó)整個(gè)的文學(xué)有一個(gè)同時(shí)的存在,組成一個(gè)同時(shí)的局面。”對(duì)傳統(tǒng)的重新定義集中體現(xiàn)了艾略特的傳統(tǒng)觀,即他的文學(xué)史觀。而且我們可以看出,艾略特是站在歷史的角度對(duì)傳統(tǒng)加以重新釋義的。正如藍(lán)色姆所指出的: “艾略特將他的歷史學(xué)研究應(yīng)用于文學(xué)解讀,所以當(dāng)?shù)闷稹畾v史批評(píng)家’的稱號(hào)。”在艾略特看來(lái),“傳統(tǒng)”的意義要廣泛得多,傳統(tǒng)意味著歷史感,而其核心便是“歷史意識(shí)”,他的大多數(shù)文學(xué)理論批評(píng)著作都體現(xiàn)了這種歷史感。通過仔細(xì)分析艾略特對(duì)“傳統(tǒng)”所下的定義,我們還可以發(fā)現(xiàn)他認(rèn)為傳統(tǒng)對(duì)于作家是不可缺少的,不論作家是否意識(shí)到,任何創(chuàng)作都不可能獨(dú)立于傳統(tǒng)之外。詩(shī)人應(yīng)該使自己融入傳統(tǒng)中,而且要遵循傳統(tǒng)。作家只有有意識(shí)的認(rèn)識(shí)和依靠傳統(tǒng),傳統(tǒng)才有可能在這一基礎(chǔ)上有所突破和創(chuàng)新。
然而艾略特并沒有把傳統(tǒng)看成是靜止的東西。他認(rèn)為: “如果傳統(tǒng)的方式僅限于追隨前一代,或僅限于盲目的或膽怯的墨守前一代成功的地方,‘傳統(tǒng)’自然是不足稱道了。”只有賦予“傳統(tǒng)”這一概念,一種新的內(nèi)涵和張力,以此為基礎(chǔ)才可以相應(yīng)地產(chǎn)生一種新的文學(xué)理論觀,以此協(xié)調(diào)自文藝復(fù)興和浪漫主義以來(lái)所存在的傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能相對(duì)峙的尖銳矛盾。
其實(shí),通過對(duì)《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》一文加以仔細(xì)分析,我們可以管窺到艾略特對(duì)傳統(tǒng)的重新定義主要體現(xiàn)在三個(gè)方面:首先,正如上文所提到的那樣,“傳統(tǒng)”是動(dòng)態(tài)的,而非靜態(tài)的,是積極的而非消極的。艾略特用傳統(tǒng)本身對(duì)傳統(tǒng)進(jìn)一步發(fā)展的觀點(diǎn)就具有一種積極的傳統(tǒng)意義。其次,“傳統(tǒng)”是對(duì)過去性和現(xiàn)存性,永久的和暫時(shí)的歷史意識(shí)。任何人都不能超越傳統(tǒng),個(gè)人只能在傳統(tǒng)中進(jìn)行創(chuàng)造性地創(chuàng)新,它必須在盛行的或現(xiàn)存的文化傳統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮想象和語(yǔ)言表達(dá)的天賦。最后,“傳統(tǒng)”還具有權(quán)威性和開放性。艾略特認(rèn)為詩(shī)人和“傳統(tǒng)”并不是處于對(duì)立的,毫不相關(guān)的隔離狀態(tài)。詩(shī)人本身就處于傳統(tǒng)和歷史這個(gè)連續(xù)體之中,一個(gè)作家的重要性和意義也就是他在傳統(tǒng)中的地位,他與以往詩(shī)人的關(guān)系。
四
真正的發(fā)展在于舊有的事物被不斷顛覆,新的事物在曲折中對(duì)其加以突破,而突破的前提就是反叛。對(duì)《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》一文加以分析,我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)一個(gè)非常有趣的現(xiàn)象:艾略特在積極推崇傳統(tǒng)的同時(shí),也是這樣的叛逆者。
西方學(xué)術(shù)中有一個(gè)優(yōu)良的傳統(tǒng),即強(qiáng)調(diào)文藝?yán)碚撝械挠袡C(jī)整體觀點(diǎn)。從古希臘的亞里士多德到現(xiàn)當(dāng)代西方文論,許多文藝?yán)碚摷叶紡穆?lián)系的觀點(diǎn)分析文藝作品的構(gòu)成。重新審視艾略特對(duì)“傳統(tǒng)”的解釋,我們不難發(fā)現(xiàn)他也繼承了這一文學(xué)作品的有機(jī)整體觀,但他沒有把這種有機(jī)整體觀的著眼點(diǎn)放在個(gè)別作品上,而是著眼于整個(gè)文學(xué),形成一個(gè)“有機(jī)的整體”。在《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》中,他還寫道:“現(xiàn)存的藝術(shù)經(jīng)典本身就構(gòu)成一個(gè)理想的秩序,這個(gè)秩序由于新的(真正新的)作品被介紹進(jìn)來(lái)而發(fā)生變化。這個(gè)已成的秩序在新的作品出現(xiàn)以前本是完整的,加入新花樣以后要繼續(xù)保持完整,整個(gè)的秩序就必須改變一下,即使改變得很小;因此每件藝術(shù)作品對(duì)于整體的關(guān)系、比例和價(jià)值就重新調(diào)整了,這就是新與舊的適應(yīng)。”在這里他強(qiáng)調(diào)的是文學(xué)作品的有機(jī)整體一直處于一 種運(yùn)動(dòng)的變化過程之中,新的作品不斷加入到這個(gè)有機(jī)整體中,引起了它的適應(yīng)和變化。
艾略特在遵循文學(xué)的有機(jī)整體觀這一傳統(tǒng)的同時(shí),又把每一具體文學(xué)作品也看做是一個(gè)有機(jī)整體。他認(rèn)為,作品的各組成部分并不是一種簡(jiǎn)單的疊加,而是一種有機(jī)的組合。這是他在繼承傳統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)上,對(duì)傳統(tǒng)又加以創(chuàng)新的地方。
19世紀(jì)末的西方文學(xué)批評(píng)是以實(shí)證主義和浪漫主義的文學(xué)批評(píng)為主導(dǎo),而針對(duì)浪漫主義文學(xué)批評(píng)崇尚情感的自我表現(xiàn),崇尚個(gè)性的基本觀點(diǎn),艾略特在《傳統(tǒng)與個(gè)人才能》中提出了最具現(xiàn)代創(chuàng)新性的文學(xué)理論,即著名的“非個(gè)人化理論”。文中他提到:“詩(shī)不是放縱感情,而是逃避感情,不是表現(xiàn)個(gè)性,而是逃避個(gè)性。”這實(shí)際上就是對(duì)控制歐洲文化理論一個(gè)多世紀(jì)的表現(xiàn)論的反沖,也是與歐洲大陸國(guó)家現(xiàn)代文化理論針鋒相對(duì)的。他強(qiáng)調(diào)文學(xué)家應(yīng)該消滅個(gè)性,逃避個(gè)人的情感,因?yàn)橹挥邢麥鐐€(gè)性,藝術(shù)才能達(dá)到科學(xué)的境界。“要做到消滅個(gè)性這一點(diǎn),藝術(shù)才可以說(shuō)達(dá)到科學(xué)的地步了。”
實(shí)證主義和浪漫主義批評(píng)具有一個(gè)共同的特點(diǎn),即忽視或輕視對(duì)作品本身的研究,艾略特的“非個(gè)性化理論”恰好是對(duì)這種傾向的反駁。在文中他寫道:“誠(chéng)實(shí)的批評(píng)和敏感的鑒賞,并不注意詩(shī)人,而注意詩(shī)。”把興趣從詩(shī)人轉(zhuǎn)移到詩(shī)有助于對(duì)詩(shī)作出更公正的評(píng)價(jià)。這也表明艾略特認(rèn)為作品的意義和作者的意圖毫無(wú)關(guān)系,可以脫離詩(shī)人的意圖而對(duì)作品單獨(dú)加以研究。他的“非個(gè)人化理論”顛覆了從社會(huì)、歷史、道德、心理和文學(xué)家個(gè)人方面去解釋作品的方法,而把批評(píng)的眼光放到了文本上,強(qiáng)調(diào)了“詩(shī)”在批評(píng)中的本體地位,使文本在文學(xué)理論研究中占據(jù)了中心地位。這種把研究的重心從作家轉(zhuǎn)移到作品的理論不但抨擊和反叛了浪漫主義,而且直接為新批評(píng)派關(guān)注文本本身的理論提供了依據(jù),因此艾略特被稱為新批評(píng)派的鼻祖。應(yīng)該說(shuō)“非個(gè)性化理論”是艾略特超越前人的獨(dú)到之處,是他的文學(xué)理論觀中的現(xiàn)代性的創(chuàng)新因素,并且由此開創(chuàng)了一個(gè)新的文論流派。